Africa Must Be Free by 1983

In a 1976 story for The New York Times titled “Fear in Paradise,” reporter Stephen Davis went down to Jamaica to contextualize why and how the country was on the brink. At the time, Jamaica was an ever-flowing source of folklore, fanfare, and fundamental misreadings of its sociopolitical reality. The island’s two leading political outfits—the People’s National Party and the Jamaican Labor Party—were constantly in the throes of a violent struggle for power with one another. But the depths of desperation and tension brewing for the greater part of a decade went much deeper.

Davis found that the country’s prime minister, Michael Manley—a staunch democratic socialist at the end of his first four-year term primarily won by appealing to an impoverished, majority-Black population—enacted several policies that prioritized reforming Jamaica’s economy. He helped establish co-op farms, incentivized unionizing, and increased the levy on bauxite—the raw material used to make aluminum—so it would not be subject to market prices dictated by Canada and the United States. Jamaica’s upper-class business people and their North American counterparts weren’t happy.

Manley only made matters worse by developing a relationship with Cuban president, Fidel Castro, one of the Western world’s sworn enemies. Though it has never been proven, there were informed hunches that these decisions attracted the CIA’s attention who, as a result, helped destabilize Jamaica’s economy, facilitated the dismantling of the country’s international reputation through media, and provided an unprecedented hoard of firearms to street-level enforcers on both the PNP and JLP sides. “The visitor, once away from the North Coast resorts, has a feeling of being in Africa,” Davis ignorantly theorized. “The ubiquitous presence of machete‐wielding peasants is intimidating to white visitors.”

But while a white journalist was likening Jamaica to Africa to frame its Black citizens as disorderly and primitive, followers of the Rastafari doctrine were trying to solidify a spiritual, if not material, connection to their ancestral continent. Reggae music was their most successful tool in that pursuit, a romanticized longing for what had been taken away from them centuries prior. One particularly impressive, yet lesser-known artist in the scene was Hugh Mundell, a prolific teenager who, by the time that New York Times article ran, was in the beginning stages of recording his first album. Unlike most of the standout artists of his generation—and Jamaican youths, in general—he did not come from the rough parts of town. His father’s job as an attorney afforded Mundell a middle-class upbringing, but what he’d been observing his country endure, especially its Black majority, placed a fire under him to lend his voice to the matters at hand.

As the story goes, Mundell was first introduced to reggae by family friend Boris Gardiner, the guy whose song, “Every N****r is a Star” is sampled on the intro of Kendrick Lamar’s To Pimp A Butterfly. Through Gardiner, Mundell was in and out of studios learning the ropes, sharpening his raw, angelic voice. One day, his neighbor and fellow aspiring singer, Winston McAnuff, a.k.a. Electric Dread, invited him to tag along for a session at now-legendary producer duo Joe Gibbs and Errol T’s studio. Before the session was over, Mundell recorded a never-released track called “Where Is Natty Dread” which must have been rather special because, when the standout producer Augustus Pablo dropped by the space and heard it, he immediately asked the teen for original vocals to lay over some sounds he’d been working on. In a week, the two were back at the same spot embarking on a journey that would lay the foundation for one of reggae’s most exhilarating producer-vocalist duos to ever exist. Hugh Mundell was just 14 years old.

Their first session resulted in two recordings. One was “Africa Must Be Free.” Inspired by a Haile Selassie I speech from 1963 in which the Ethiopian emperor (and Rastafarianism’s messiah) addressed the newly-formed Organization for African Unity, the song is an emotional demand for liberation. On it, Mundell wails the title phrase repeatedly and details what’s meant when he speaks of freedom with palpable conviction: “No more war/No more beating/No more slavery/No more brutality.” He articulates the fatigue of being on the bottom rung of society, stressing that, after years of exploitation and laboring in the unforgiving heat, the time for Africans and their descendants in the Americas to break metaphorical shackles was long overdue. Mundell’s adolescent vocal tone here almost suggests androgyny which, in this context, actually does a good job decentering gender in a way that prioritizes the song’s message; his mystic presence is emphasized.

All of this is bolstered by Augustus Pablo’s beautifully constructed production. At certain points of the record, Pablo incorporates elements of dub by letting instruments reverberate and echo, or periodically taking out the percussion to let Mundell’s nasally voice bounce around on its own. The most curious part of the song is that the demand comes with a specific deadline: “Africa must be free by the year 1983.” Why the distinction is made isn’t exactly clear. Haile Selassie’s speech didn’t mark that as an ultimatum and nothing detectably notable was on the docket for that particular year. Maybe it was just a matter of the “free” and “three” rhyming. Or maybe The Most High himself was utilizing Mundell to deliver a prophecy. Whatever the reason, a teenager carrying out this performance is awe-inspiring, especially considering the fact that he conceptualized and wrote the whole thing on his own. The song made him an instant magnet for admiration among reggae fans from Jamaica to the United Kingdom. It also earned him a new nickname: The Blessed Youth.

The other of those first two recordings with Pablo was “My My,” later changed to “My Mind.” This one isn’t a call to action which, depending on how you view those types of records, can feel a little more performative, albeit genuine. “My My,” on the other hand, is a simple statement of reflection. On a groove Pablo cooked up to have a bit of country & western flavor in its guitar strums, Mundell shares what crosses his mind when he sits in solitude. He doesn’t just appreciate the sunshine, he thinks of how it provides a service by drying the clothes he left hanging outside on the line. When thinking about rain, he thinks of how it “goes pitter-patter on my window pane.” By his observations, likely informed by Rastafari encouraging a connection to nature, every element around us has its role. With these records in the pocket, Pablo, recognizing Mundell’s gifts for chanting and storytelling, kept the youth close by to develop him as an artist for the next two years. He released the two songs on his Rockers label to much fanfare and the two continued creating until he felt the time was right. The result of his tutelage is Mundell’s debut LP, Africa Must Be Free By 1983, released in 1978 and named after the first record they made together.

What’s important to note is how big of a co-sign Augustus Pablo was for a now 16-year-old who’d otherwise be an unknown hopeful singer in an endless pool of reggae artists trying to distinguish themselves, like a young Snoop Dogg becoming Dr. Dre’s protege in the early ’90s. Before he ran across Mundell at Joe Gibbs and Errol T’s place, Pablo was one of the foremost producers in both the dub and roots movements, only trailing behind titans like King Tubby and Lee “Scratch” Perry. While he altered pre-existing sound with the best of them, his distinction on original tracks was his use of the melodica, a small handheld keyboard that is blown into like a flute. It added a more serene slant to reggae, almost fusing it with traditional East Asian music.

Because Pablo provided Mundell with that signature sound, mentorship, and overall artistic direction, it placed the young singer in an undoubtedly advantageous situation. Mundell being such a generational talent just accelerated the return of Pablo’s investment. For the album, the two-year recording boot camp between Mundell and Pablo yielded seven additional tracks that were added to the first two. Across these songs, Mundell offered more impassioned chants to what he recognized as the state of Black people in his home country, but also across the Atlantic.

In many ways, much of his focus here is what Stephen Davis reported on for the New York Times a couple years prior. The album’s intro, “Let’s All Unite” opens with Pablo blowing into his melodica before the teen sensation urges that, as members of the human race, we should all have the ability (or the willingness) to look beyond racial schisms and agree on a common goal of freedom for all. It’s hard to imagine “Why Do Black Men Fuss and Fight” isn’t at least moderately inspired by the blood drawn between PNP and JLP henchmen. There’s plenty to be said about Mundell being well beyond his years as a writer, but in these moments of earnest optimism and attempts at peace-making, his child-like innocence is magnified. It’s not that he isn’t acutely aware of Black people’s subjugation (“Run Revolution a Come” recognizes that both socialism and capitalism are just -isms at the end of the day that rarely help the poor), but he’s still holding on to a semblance of hope.

Still, his star glints brightest when he strips it all down and sings Jah’s praises. The epitome of his God-given talents is exemplified in “Book of Life,” where, with the most anointed wailing you’ve ever heard, he gives key instructions on how to ensure your place in eternal paradise: refraining from back-biting, ridding yourself of malice, and being mindful of how you maneuver through life. The recording is clearly one of his earlier ones, his barely-matured voice filtered through a grainy mix, singing in a way that feels fully natural to him. There’s no polish, just pure devotion to God’s love and what the higher power provides when we allow Him to do his job. At the album’s end, “Jah Will Provide” acts similarly, where Mundell emphasizes that The Most High will step in when you are most in need. So don’t fret. The sweetness of that one is immediately extended by Augustus Pablo closing the album with a dubbed version of the song titled “Ital Sip,” where Mundell screaming “Jah” is echoed throughout to drive the point home. The best reggae does this masterfully: sweeping you up with no-nonsense, religiously-inspired music without making you feel like you’re actually listening to religious music. It’s a kind of conjuring, really.

Even though Africa Must Be Free by 1983 was critically acclaimed on its release, most notably getting a five-star review from Rolling Stone, the enigmatic Mundell didn’t appear much in the press. And while his gospel was respected in his home country, it especially caught on in Europe in the years following his debut. In a rare audio interview from 1980 with British DJ and radio host David Rodigan, a.k.a. Ram Jam, Mundell spoke on why he’d released such a small serving of music throughout his young career while still managing a fairly large following. By then, he had a second album, Time And Place, out as well. “The first album, the feedback we got—the album was very strong—it would take a time to reach to the people. So we didn’t want to give them too much thing that they listen there and listen here. You know? Just wanna give them something they can go penetrate until we ready to give them some new messages.” He was acutely aware of intentionality’s importance—a need to pace oneself rather than feeding the machine to no end. In the early ’80s, he performed a handful of shows between the UK, France, and the American West and released two more solo albums, 1982’s Mundell and 1983’s Blackman’s Foundation.

One day in October of 1983, Mundell returned home to Kingston after visiting his mother in Montego Bay to find his window was busted and, inside, kitchen appliances, among other things, missing. The next day, his neighbors tipped him off to a man they saw taking his belongings. Based on the description, Mundell and his friend and fellow artist Junior Reid found the guy and when confronted, he denied any wrongdoing. But Mundell coaxed the man into getting into his car and drove him to the police station to turn him in. Days later, when Reid and Mundell visit a promoter to collect some show money, they’re flagged down by another man on the street who claims to be the thief’s brother. An argument over police cooperation ensues and the guy pulls out a gun and begins to fire inside Mundell’s car where his wife and Reid are also sitting. Sadly, everyone but Mundell survived the attack. He was only 21.

What's most gutting about Mundell’s early death is that, even as a child, he recognized the looming threat of violence in his home country—that desperation and generations of being relegated to the underclass bred contempt between folks who should be looking at one another as family. To sing through the confusion over why Black people fuss and fight and then have that be the cause of your undoing is bone-chilling. To demand the sons and daughters of Africa be free of colonial rule and exploitation by 1983, only to leave this Earth at the close of that year is full-circle in a way that no one hopes to be full-circle. What’s certain is that higher forces sent Hugh Mundell to this earthly plane to deliver a message. But when a story ends in this sort of eerie tragedy, it’s hard to identify what that message was actually supposed to be, other than to try spending the time you do have here with gratitude, intention, love for your fellow man, and a reverence for life.